Figure: Phacelia is a good mid season food source for a range of pollinators
Years ago, I had an excellent PhD student named Jake Bishop, who is now a successful scientist at Reading University, who worked on beans and the impact pollinators have on bean sets.
In those days, much of my research focused on the effects of heat stress on crop flowering. Seeing the stamens emerge in sequence from a wheat flower still brings back waves of nostalgia.
Back to beans: the first thing to note is that heat stress is far more catastrophic if a plant is also suffering from drought. The most vulnerable stage of flowering is pollen formation. Thus, the combination of heat and drought is much worse than heat alone.
If pollen is damaged, the flower effectively becomes male-sterile. The female stigma waits for pollen to arrive, but if none appears within about 10 days, the flower drops off. For the bean, bees can save the flower. They transfer viable pollen from a flower that escaped the heat stress—perhaps by developing on a cooler day—to pollinate the male-sterile flower. Jake proved that bees become increasingly important for maintaining crop yields under extreme weather conditions.
Bees in the field need encouragement through nesting sites, like old mouse holes, and alternative food sources. Phacelia and clovers are classic mid-season forage crops, while early and late-season species like hawthorn and ivy provide disproportionate benefits to founding queen bees. A consistent, even if relatively small, early-season food supply can dramatically boost bee populations all summer by ensuring the queen is well-nourished.
I always grow phacelia with my beans but it is not for the bees, but for the wasps. These aphid-eating wasps completely wipe out my black bean aphids. This was brought to mind last week while I was assessing a bean trial. The beans next to the hedge and the phacelia margin were completely free of aphids. However, about 50 metres into the field, there was clear evidence of heavy infestation.
Ultimately, the cost-benefit ratio depends on the weather. High temperatures, drought, and the loss of chemical pest control all highlight the immense value of beneficial insect communities in our fields—and our responsibility to provide them with diverse hedges and food throughout the year.
Figure: Aphid remains on a bean stem after feeding of the larvae of parasitic wasps. The holes in the aphid mummies show where the adult wasp emerged
Bulk density is a soil property commonly measured when soil testing, particularly in relation to measuring soil carbon. An important component of measuring soil health, it can provide farmers and growers guidance on what to focus on following testing.
What is Bulk Density?
Bulk density measures the mass of a known volume of soil, including the pore space – i.e. how tightly or loosely it is packed together – which has a huge impact on important soil processes. For example, if a soil is unusually tight it can affect porosity, which in turn affects water infiltration and soil aeration. Consequently, when these processes are inhibited it can negatively impact soil and plant health, reducing farm productivity. This is why compaction issues are a key focus of soil health discussions.
Soil Texture and Bulk Density
In order to understand what the bulk densities of our soils should look like, we also need to understand how soil texture plays an important role in determining the natural range of bulk densities.
Peat generally has a very low bulk density (as low as 0.2 g/cm3) due to its high organic matter content, allowing for a high amount of porosity. Cultivated fine textured soils, such as clays and silt loams, often have bulk densities in the middle of the range (between 0.9g/cm3–1.5g/cm3), whilst cultivated sandy soils tend to have higher bulk densities (1.25g/cm3–1.75g/cm3). To give you an idea of what an extremely high bulk density looks and feels like, concrete has a value of 2.5g/cm3.
The key part to remember is that each soil type has an inherent bulk density range, and while occupying a lower or middle part of the range is generally desirable, this is heavily context dependent.
Bulk Density and Management
Although bulk density is determined by soil texture, how soil is managed will also contribute to the final figure. Heavy equipment, cultivation or grazing in unsuitable conditions and unsuitable nutrient management can all drive up bulk densities into ranges that will cause problems later on. Avoiding these practices – whilst increasing soil organic matter (SOM) and optimising soil health – will help to keep bulk densities in a range suitable for optimal productivity. If in doubt about what your range should be on farm, finding and examining the soil in undisturbed areas that share the same soil texture as your main cropping or grassland areas (such as in hedge bottoms) can help to give a baseline.
Bulk density and carbon
Although bulk density can reveal insights into soil structure and health, it is most commonly measured in order to quantify carbon stocks. When carbon samples are taken and analysed they are expressed as a carbon concentration (C%) of the soil sample, but in order to quantify the amount of carbon in the specific field we must know the mass of soil within a given volume. If soil carbon is being measured at different depths, then a measurement of bulk density must also be taken at those depths.
How do we take it?
There are different approaches to taking bulk densities. The most common method used is the intact core approach, which is what we use at FCT. For each depth being sampled, we use a core of a known volume, insert it into the soil at the depth and then carefully remove it to be sent away for lab analysis. When we receive the data back we can then use a simple formula to calculate the carbon stock.
SOC stock (tC/ha) = Bulk Density g/cm³ x Depth (cm) x OC(%) x 10
Conclusion: Key points about bulk density
On farm sampling is a balance between scientific rigour, cost and practicality. In order to help farmers with this, we offer the following guidance on bulk density sampling:
Measuring Carbon Stocks – When sampling for carbon, bulk density should also be taken to enable carbon stocks to be quantified
Accounting For Depth – Bulk density will change at different depths, so taking at least a sample per depth per field is necessary in combination with the sampling for carbon at different depths
Choosing Location – The location for a bulk density sample should be representative of the primary field conditions. As with sampling for other soil properties, atypical areas such as gateways and headlands should be avoided
Stony Soils – If you have stony soils, you may be required to take multiple bulk density measurement as stones can introduce variability that requires more data to overcome
If you’ve read this article and still feel overwhelmed by the information about soil sampling, please feel free to contact us with your questions. As the science evolves and new technologies develop, more user friendly and practical approaches are emerging for farmers and growers to use.
Actions that cut carbon emissions often reduce costs – fuels and artificial fertilisers being the obvious examples. But on the other side of the equation, improving soil health – for instance by reducing cultivations and building soil organic matter, also results in more carbon being sequestered in farm soils. When soil organic matter increases, so does crop health, biodiversity, water holding capacity, resilience to floods and droughts, and in some cases water management for the wider landscape. There are multiple benefits, with carbon reductions being perhaps a secondary benefit to a range of improved business resilience measures.
Here are nine reasons why farmers and growers should care—and why it’s central to building resilient, profitable and sustainable businesses.
1. Economic benefits
Reducing farm emissions is often good for the bank balance. High-carbon inputs like fuel and fertiliser usually carry a high cost; by cutting emissions, you can often cut costs too. Caring about carbon can also create new business opportunities, with sustainability incentives from governments and organisations becoming increasingly common.
2. Improve soil health
Practices that build soil carbon improve soil health. Soil carbon fuels beneficial microbes that supply crops with essential nutrients. Healthier soils support higher yields with the same (or fewer) inputs, making land more productive and profitable. Strong soil health also safeguards fertility for future generations.
3. Highlight inefficiencies on farm
Our free Farm Carbon Calculator is a powerful management tool, helping farmers and growers to undertake a ‘carbon audit’ and identify wasteful (and costly) activities. High-emission items usually have a high price tag; tackling inefficiencies improves both your finances and your farm’s carbon footprint.
4. Improve farm resilience
The climate crisis drives many of the challenges farmers face today. Carbon-smart practices can help farms adapt to:
Local climate impacts (droughts, floods, heatwaves and other extreme events)
Input price fluctuations
Policy changes
Shifting markets.
5. Producers as part of the solution
Agriculture produces much of the world’s methane and nitrous oxide, but it can also be a major part of the solution. Farmers and growers can reduce their own emissions and even absorb carbon from the atmosphere — supporting global climate action while ensuring the long-term sustainability of their farms.
6. Help your country meet climate commitments
The UK, for example, is legally committed to net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050. Landowners and businesses will increasingly need to show evidence of action. Starting carbon audits now can put you ahead of future regulations that require monitoring and reduction.
7. Support supply chain commitments
Food businesses are under pressure to decarbonise, and supply chains are favouring low-carbon products. Some merchants, co-ops and buyers may even offer incentives for farms that measure and cut emissions. Farmers and growers who can demonstrate progress may secure stronger market demand and opportunities.
8. Engage positively with the public
Carbon is measurable — a clear way to show change over time. This helps build a positive narrative and public trust in farming. With customers increasingly interested in the footprint of their food, farmers and growers have a chance to share how agriculture is working to reduce impacts.
9. Support biodiversity
Farms are uniquely placed to promote biodiversity and create habitats for wildlife. Diverse ecosystems bring practical benefits like healthier soils, natural pest and disease control, pollination and greater climate resilience. They also connect people with nature, support wellbeing and provide beauty to be shared.
How We Can Help
At Farm Carbon Toolkit, we’ve been working on this for over 15 years. We can provide independent, practical support to help you start—or continue—your carbon journey.
Our free Farm Carbon Calculator is designed specifically for farmers and growers, and we run events, share guidance and offer advice to support action on the ground.
Wherever you are on the journey, we’re here to help. The important thing is to get started.
For many, views of animals grazing under large trees invokes the image of a slower pace associated with older farming periods. Whilst few would dispute the beauty of this, modern agriculture has largely forgotten the utility of trees in farming systems, often seeing them purely as a refuge for wildlife and a nuisance to farming activities . But the work of Dr Lindsay Whistance, Senior Livestock Researcher at the Organic Researcher Centre, is seeking to provide farmers with evidence of how valuable trees are in both environmental and economic terms. Trees can support greater animal welfare and more resilient farm enterprises overall. In this case study, we look at some of Dr Whistance’s research, which examines some of the ways trees positively contribute to livestock farming systems.
Trees on Farms through the Ages
In the past, trees in both hedgerows and fields were much more integrated features of the British farming landscape. Farm trees, hedgerows and woodland were managed carefully to produce a variety of resources. These included raw materials for many household items and crafts, timber for buildings, fuel, as well as fodder and shelter for farm animals.
As the value of wood declined, alongside the adoption of more mechanised and larger scale agriculture, the use for trees on farms diminished. Consequently, many farmland hedgerows and trees were removed in the last century to increase efficiency and productivity. The decline of trees in the farming landscape meant many benefits were lost, some which were noted and others which are only becoming more apparent now.
The Benefits Triage
Trying to understand and put meaningful data behind what these benefits might be has been a key component of Dr Whistance’s research. She has helped identify several key areas, both directly and indirectly, where trees positively contribute to livestock welfare and has provided a strong case for their inclusion in farming systems.
1. Shelter – buffering the extremes
One of the key challenges farmers face now is the increasing extremes of climatic events. Extreme heat, cold, wind and rain are all challenges to livestock who cannot access places to take refuge. Animals maintain a ‘thermal comfort zone’ where bodily processes are regulated. When temperatures move beyond this zone, the animal begins to experience stress which leads to a greater susceptibility for illness or death.
In hot environments, where animals’ body temperature exceeds the higher critical temperature (HCT), animal food intake decreases in an attempt to reduce heat load. An example of this is in dairy cows, where heat stress leads to a negative energy balance, increases metabolic disorders, and decreases milk production. FCT’s Jemma Morgan explores this issue in her recent blog.
In cold temperatures, animals need to increase their food intake every 1°C that drops below the lower critical temperature (LTC). This puts pressure on food availability.
Dr Whistance provides evidence that trees can help solve these issues. In high temperatures trees canopies help break any solar radiation and capture and store more moisture, leading to a cooling effect. This provides valuable refuge to animals seeking an escape from the heat. In challenging cold conditions, trees help to capture and store warm air underneath their branches, which can sometimes be as much as 6°c warmer than surrounding temperature.
Sheltered refuge is especially valuable during lambing, as newborn lambs must stay warm and dry in their first few hours of life. Without adequate shelter, they risk hypothermia before they can take in vital colostrum, gain energy, and begin to regulate their own body temperature. There are benefits during cold periods too, where grasses grow earlier in the season due to the warm pockets of air. During dry periods, grasses remain green due to the moisture and shade which trees provide. Dr Whistance’s work has also highlighted the benefits of trees in mitigating wind and its influence on ambient temperature.
More farmers are recognising and starting to implement agroforestry to support profitable farming, such as at Longmoor Farm in Dorset.
2- Tree fodder
Trace elements (TE) and plant secondary metabolic (PSM) products form an important part of a herbivore’s diet which directly influence an animals health. Traditionally, tree fodder was a key component of farm animals diet and would provide both of these elements. As access to trees and shrubs has become more restricted in modern day agriculture, these mineral elements have had to be provided through bought in supplements instead.
In one of their studies, Dr Whistance and her team examined mineral content of tree species and found that trees such as willow can provide an important source of cobalt and zinc, particularly valuable for weaned lambs. We have a blog by FCT’s Anthony Ellis on his experiences.
In another of their studies, they also found that the mineral content of stored tree fodder became more available after its storage period, indicating its potential as a stable source of minerals.
As well as animals foraging for the minerals they require, they can self medicate using plants which contain the necessary PSMs. Self selecting behaviour has been studied in goats and sheep and has revealed that those with high worm burdens will seek out leaves with high amounts of tannins to reduce their internal parasites. Certain trees contain high levels of condensed tannins which make them valuable resources for livestock.
Herbal leys provide tannins and trace elements but trees have an advantage due to their larger and deeper root systems that allow them to access minerals deep into the soil. As perennial plants, they also have key relationships with mycorrhizal fungi which increases the variety of minerals and has the ability to use biochemistry to access nutrients that pasture plants cannot. For livestock such as chickens and pigs, alongside providing browse, trees in the field can help promote a wider range of food sources including insects, nuts and seeds and fungi, which all encourages natural foraging behaviour.
3. Expressing animal behaviour
The last point to examine from Dr Whistance’s work is the effect trees can have on farm animal behaviour. The ability for an animal to express its natural behaviour is a key but often overlooked component of farm animal welfare and promotion of healthy animals. Similar to climatic stress and nutrient deficiencies, environmental suppression of animal instinct may lead to abnormal behaviour which then contributes to more serious problems further down the line.
Dr Whistance’s work has found that fields with trees allow livestock to express behaviour such as play (including scratching and rubbing against tree trunks) and encourages the natural instinct to seek hiding places for seclusion. These behaviours support the animals when regulating their own physiological and emotional health. Cattle in silviopasture systems show increased social licking by up to 80%, which is almost double compared to solely pasture systems. This promotes greater social cohesion which results in animals that demonstrate less fear and aggression and consequently stress. On a physical level, animals enjoy and benefit from scratching and rubbing themselves against trees and shrubs as it helps to dislodge parasites and seeds and also removes dead skin and hair which can all contribute to complications. Giving the animal the opportunity to manage its own needs in a suitable way can remove the need for intervention from the farmer.
Conclusion
One of the key insights from Dr. Whistance’s work is the vital role that trees and hedgerows play in helping animals to self-regulate, whether through shelter, diet, or behaviour. Her research highlights the importance of managing and using the natural resources available on the farm to support animal well-being. When used wisely, these resources can offer multiple benefits, reducing the need to purchase external inputs and enhancing the overall sustainability of the farm. By enabling both livestock and the wider farm system to make use of natural features, farmers can strengthen the environmental and economic resilience of their operations – just as previous generations did.
It is important to note that tree systems must be carefully designed to suit the specific needs and conditions of each farm. There is no one-size-fits-all approach, and some adjustments may be necessary as the system grows within each farm.
Key Findings
Trees and hedgerows are valuable on-farm resources, especially for livestock farmers
They provide environmental benefits and are key to livestock’s physical and emotional health by facilitating access to shelter, nutrition and expression of natural behaviour.
Tree planting for livestock requires careful planning so the benefits are optimised and the cost/maintenance kept as low as possible
It is May, it is dry, and farmers are praying for rain. The conversations I’ve had with farmers and veterinarians this week have painted a clear picture: while political uncertainty may cloud the immediate horizon, one thing remains constant—the risk of climate change and its disruption to traditional agricultural systems. These discussions have reinforced a fundamental truth that many in agriculture are grappling with: the old ways of doing things may no longer be sufficient for the challenges ahead.
Cracked ground in May 2025
The Reality of Risk in Modern Agriculture
Farmers today face an unprecedented combination of challenges. Extreme weather events are no longer anomalies but regular occurrences that demand preparation. Prolonged dry periods followed by prolonged wet periods, heavy rain and unexpected late frosts, shifting pest patterns that render traditional management strategies obsolete—these are the new realities of agricultural production.
A warm and very dry spring was the reality for most of the UK in 2025. These plots detail how much rainfall and temperature deviate from the long-term averages between 1991 and 2020. Credit: UK Met Office
After 60 years of being encouraged to use chemical solutions to build yield, and measure efficiency as output per unit of land farmed, we have created a system that is reliant on external inputs where we have no control over price. Alongside that, we have transitioned from a predictable political subsidy system to one where objectives differ, and the expectation of delivering public goods means the subsidy systems now favour land ownership over food production.
Yet the challenge extends beyond the farm gate. Veterinarians are also witnessing cultural shifts that demand their own form of resilience. Changing consumer expectations around animal welfare, evolving regulatory frameworks, and new technologies are transforming veterinary practice. Like farmers, they must adapt to remain relevant and practical in serving their communities.
Understanding Assets and Aspirations
Building resilience requires a fundamental shift in how we think about agricultural assets. Traditional measures of farm value—land, equipment, and livestock—remain important, but they’re no longer sufficient indicators of long-term viability. Today’s resilient farms also invest in knowledge assets, relationship networks, and adaptive capacity.
This broader understanding of assets includes soil health as a foundation for productivity, water management systems that can handle both scarcity and excess, and diversified income streams that provide stability when primary enterprises face challenges. It also encompasses the human capital—the skills, knowledge, and relationships that enable farmers to navigate uncertainty and capitalise on opportunities.
Cattle grazing in silvopasture may become a more common sight as we value the shade trees provide and the additional carbon sequestration cows can bring
Aspirations matter equally. Farmers who view their operations as dynamic systems capable of evolution rather than static enterprises bound by tradition are better positioned to build resilience. This mindset shift—from preserving the status quo to embracing adaptive change—is crucial for long-term sustainability.
Strategies for Long-Term Thinking
Successful resilience building requires moving beyond reactive responses to proactive planning. This means developing systems that can withstand shocks while maintaining productivity and profitability. Several key strategies emerge from successful adaptation stories:
Diversification remains one of the most effective tools for resilience. Farmers who have integrated multiple enterprises—combining crops with livestock, adding value-added processing, or incorporating agritourism—have created buffer systems that cushion against financial challenges. This diversification extends to soils, where longer rotations with a greater variety of crops help build soil carbon and protect soil integrity. For livestock, the diversity of forage mix with different harvest dates will provide more flexibility in responding to weather events.
Soil health investment has proven particularly valuable. Farmers implementing regenerative practices report not only improved drought tolerance and reduced input costs but also enhanced carbon sequestration opportunities that may provide additional revenue streams. Cover cropping, reduced tillage, and integrated pest management create agricultural systems that work with natural processes rather than against them.
A herbal lay that has had no synthetic Nitrogen for four years, 21 days after being grazed (taken in September 2024)
Technology adoption, when carefully selected and implemented, enhances both productivity and adaptability. Precision agriculture tools help farmers optimise inputs and reduce waste, while weather monitoring systems provide early warnings that enable proactive responses to changing conditions. However, technology alone isn’t sufficient—it must be integrated with sound ecological principles and business planning alongside openness to learning new approaches to farming.
The Wake-Up Call We Need
The question that haunts many thoughtful observers of agriculture is what it will take for widespread recognition that complacency is no longer an option. Perhaps the answer lies not in waiting for a singular wake-up call but in recognising that the alarm has already sounded—repeatedly.
At Farm Carbon Toolkit, we work with farmers who aren’t waiting for permission to adapt, providing a whole range of services. They’re already implementing changes, investing in resilience, and building systems designed for uncertainty. They understand that protecting livelihoods and businesses requires accepting that the future will be different from the past.
This recognition is spreading through agricultural communities, driven by both necessity and opportunity. Younger farmers entering the industry often bring fresh perspectives on sustainability and adaptation. Established operators are discovering that resilience investments often improve profitability even under current conditions.
Moving Forward
The path forward requires acknowledging that resilience isn’t a destination but an ongoing process of adaptation and improvement. It demands long-term thinking in an industry which is driven by seasonal cycles. However, it understands the importance of legacy and the inheritance of future generations. Most importantly, it requires moving beyond the comfortable assumption that things will somehow work out without deliberate action.
Fundamentally, building resilience is about developing capacity—the ability to adapt, learn, and thrive in changing conditions. For agriculture to meet the challenges ahead, this capacity building must become as routine as any other farm management practice.
Spring barley crop, Norfolk, May 25 drying out and farmer has little grain expectation and even lower straw yield.
The choice is clear: we can continue to hope that traditional approaches will suffice, or we can embrace the reality that our agricultural future depends on our willingness to adapt today. The farmers leading this transformation aren’t waiting for others to catch up—they’re building the resilient systems that will define agriculture’s future.
At Farm Carbon Toolkit we are supporting those farmers to think and deliver the future.
In my role as a farm carbon and soils project assistant, I get out and about on farms a fair amount. Both at work and at home, this past month has seen me hide in the shade, reach for ice in my drinks and ‘require’ ice-cream…
Everywhere I have been, I have seen animals doing their best to find shade.
They do not have the luxury of opening doors and hiding inside, getting ice for their water, or enjoying the soothing cool of melting ice-cream on the tongue – for many, the best they can find is a hedge.
Don’t get me wrong, I’m a major fan of hedges (plant more, please) but when the sun is high in the sky, at its hottest, when the rest of us are re-applying sunscreen, or, if you’re in sunny Europe, taking a siesta, a hedge alone doesn’t actually provide much shade.
The future could be hot
With the Met Office predicting a 50:50 chance of the UK experiencing 40℃ again within the next 12 years (experienced in Lincolnshire in July 2022), for the sake of farmed animals everywhere, we must bring trees back into our farms.
Heat impacts on animals
A quick search on Google Scholar will pull up data showing that heat-stressed animals reduce their feed intake, gain less weight, produce less milk, experience reduced fertility and are more susceptible to ill health. Prolonged exposure to temperatures as low as 22℃ can induce these stresses in cattle.
I’m yet to meet a farmer who doesn’t love her/ his stock and wants to take the best care of them. Everyone wants to see good animal welfare. Increasingly, for the sake of the health and welfare of our animals (not to mention the myriad other benefits they can provide including carbon storage, alternative income streams, biodiversity gain, etc.), we need to get more trees into our farm systems.
Cows finding any available shade on a hot day
Some solutions
Allowing a tree to grow tall in an existing hedge, or planting trees in a hedge to ‘gap up’ is a simple start, but adding in-field trees to pastures brings even more benefits. For those farmers practising a form of paddock or mob grazing, it is very easy to end up with a grazing plot that only has one side hedged, offering no shelter at all.
There are a variety of options for introducing trees into pasture fields, and an increasing number of agroforestry advisors who can work with you to understand what will work for your farm system and the welfare of your animals. Despite the Sustainable Farming Incentive being paused, you can still produce an Agroforestry Plan for your holding for which you will be paid £1,268. This makes me optimistic that tree planting and management will be funded when the financial support options are opened again next year. It’s also worth knowing that you can plant up to 275 trees per 0.25 hectares without changing the classification of your land.
Cows grazing in woodland
Given that the best time to plant a tree was yesterday, now is a good time to hatch a plan for autumn/ winter planting. You don’t have to wait for the Government to fund this for you. Whilst larger plantings may need some capital assistance, a few trees and some simple protection may be cheaper than you think. Your future bottom line will thank you for it, as will the cows who give you the milk to make that ‘very necessary’ ice-cream…
As well as the award ceremony to announce the 2025 Soil Farmer of the Year winners at 7pm on Wednesday at Speakers Corner, FCT’s Hannah Jones and Becky Willson are involved in two workshops.
Weds 2nd July 1.15pm: Regenerative Stacking, The Study (Hannah Jones)
Thurs 3rd July 11am: Farming for the health of people and climate, Grass Tent (Becky Willson)
And, of course, we’ll have our usual stand E2 in the Pasture Field where we’ll be happy to chat all things soil and farm carbon related!
In rural Devon, Paul Baker is doing very interesting things on his farm where he grows arable crops, raises cows and ducks. For Paul, it all starts with the soil “Every farmer should have a microscope – you can’t measure where you are without it. Combined with the shovel, these are powerful tools.”
This is just one example of the approach that Paul is taking on his 340 acre mixed farm, which includes a range of arable crops, dairy calves, and ducks. Most of the land is rented from the Duchy of Cornwall. The farm is net carbon negative, due to the reduction in emissions and the vast amount of carbon being sequestered in the soil.
Paul regularly analyses soil, both visually and under a microscope
A paradigm shift in the arable operation
For an arable farm, a lot of carbon, time and energy is associated with cultivations – or the lack of them. By investing in a strip till drill, the soil preparation has been revolutioned, through fewer passes and much less soil being turned over. As Paul noted “in wet weather you’re not pushing the power harrow through the ground – so that really saves diesel”. Not just a bit of diesel, but savings of 75% over 3 years!
But more than just this saving in diesel, the new system is better for labour requirements, making the most of smaller weather windows, and substantial improvements in soil quality.
Strip till drill in use at Wishay Farm
There is an organic and non-organic system being run concurrently, with a range of arable crops and approaches in both systems. Experimentation in mixed varieties of wheat have also shown benefits in diseases resistance and resilience to different climatic conditions.
Building soil fertility
The changes in cultivation go hand in hand with the building of soil fertility, using composts, manures, and cover crops. But more than this, Paul is interested in the micro-organisms that are in the soil and the fertility sources, using a microscope to better understand the presence of bacteria, fungi, nematodes and protozoa.
A soil sample under the micropscope, teeming with life
Artificial fertiliser use is dropping year on year as the soil ecosystem is working better and being fed by more organic matter. “By feeding the bottom of the food chain, the worms have benefitted” observes Paul
Better grass, better animals
In the grassland part of the farm, livetsock are now grazing intensively for short periods on herbal leys. “Grass growth in the new grazing system feels much better” says Paul. “The areas that are overgrazed don’t come back as quick; weed suppression where mob grazing occurs is better because of the action of hooves and intense grazing over a short period.”
In addition there are now more dung beetles in the pastures, an indicator of a healthier soil ecosystem. It’s also been linked to a reduction in the use of wormers – again because Paul has asked whether they need to be used, rather than following the standard use of these chemicals. You can read more about dung beetles here https://farmcarbontoolkit.org.uk/2024/05/20/what-are-dung-beetles/
Dung beetles feed on manure and help recycle nutrients
A growth mindset
Throughout Wishay Farm, Paul has been experiementing with various innovations in his system, underpinned by a curiosity to improve his farm. These include:
Cultivations and seed establishment
Composting systems – including Bokashi, food waste, vermicompost, and using starter cultures
Application of organic matter and microorganisms to most effectively benefit soil and crops
Applying molasses to feed soil bacteria
Reducing agro chemicals
Experiementing with cover crops, mixes of wheat varieties, and combining different crops
Adding woodland soil in to compost
Paul offers some reflections on his journey so far: I started with cover crops. You need to justify buying machinery, but also worrying what others are thinking – your neighbours are looking over the hedge!
You have to be thick skinned to take any criticism; you can explain away any failures, but ultimately results can speak for themselves. Neighbours might take the mick, but good practice will spread!There’s lots to learn.”
“Had we still been ploughing now, we would’ve had two or three terrible seasons and lots of soil damage. The way I farm now has softened that blow. I wouldn’t want to be cultivating the land like we used to.”
Jayne Arnold is a grower who is really pushing the boundaries of soil health and management. Based on a 12-acre organic vegetable farm in Worcestershire, she is constantly striving to find ways to improve the diversity, depth, quality and carbon content of their soils. Growing for their own veg box scheme, the farm also has a few sheep, an orchard, agroforestry and makes plenty of compost.
In this new Case Study, we learn how Oxton Organics is balancing a productive farm, producing local food, whilst constantly improving soil health and quality through a voracious appetite for knowledge and an approach.
Whilst the farm has been organic for a long time, it’s only in the last 7-8 years that this new approach to soil management started, producing some really impressive results. The approach is underpinned by applying high quality compost, biostimulants, and covering the soil as much as possible through mulches, compost and green manures.
The sheep play an important role, and the pastures they’re on have improved significantly since the species mix and stocking regime has changed. This has resulted in not just better pastures and better soil helath, but much more biodiversity too, as Jayne notes:
“In the years after sowing the pasture, it was predominantly grasses, white clover, and yarrow, with a little ribwort, burnet and yellow trefoil. Now there is much more diversity, there are flowers throughout summer and autumn, including dandelions, wild carrot, yarrow, knapweed, oxeye daisy and much more. A few bee orchids and pyramidal orchid appeared four years ago and returned every year since. We had never seen orchids on the farm before! Butterflies and other pollinating insects are also more abundant.”
Biodiverse pastures at Oxton Organics
Wildlife abounds above and below ground, from the tall hedges and lines of willow coppice to the flowers of the pastures and the cropland soil teeming with life. “There are so many worms in the soil, it’s hard to avoid them when transplanting crops!” Jayne says.
Soil Organic Matter levels are rising and distributed more evenly through the soil profile. Structure is improving, soil colouration is more even and deeper through the profile. The action of worms and perennial plants helps to draw carbon down in the soil profile – and that means it is also more stable. Carbon sequestered into the soil like this is a proper drawdown of atmospheric carbon; if it’s not released then it is stable and locked away.
An example of a deep rooting and diverse green manure mix, in one of the polytunnels
Jayne notes that weather patterns have changed, with more frequent extreme rainfall events. “The up and downness of the weather has changed a lot“, she says. Building resilience in the stability of farm soils is essential in helping to mitigate such risks that all growers are experiencing from a changing climate. Soils that are higher in carbon, have a mulch or living cover, and have better structure will be much more resilient to the effects of both heavy rain and drought.
The farm’s focus on soil management underpins all the positive aspects outputs of the farm – quality food, flood resilience, carbon sequestration, biodiversity, and indeed sheer enjoyment and intrigue that gets growers out of bed in the morning. A refreshing look at green manures, founded on experience and observation, demonstrates one example of this: “you won’t build a fungal dominant soil with legumes. Plants will reject mycorrhizal associations if there’s too much Nitrogen in the system. You need to build bacteria that naturally fix Nitrogen and be more balanced. You don’t see many legumes in the hedgerow – yet that’s all green” says Jayne.
Mycorrhizal fungi associating with a radish
Managing carbon is also part of the business strategy, using an electric van for deliveries, minimising any cultivations, ensuring lots of carbon sequestration, and reducing inputs. With so much carbon being absorbed on the farm and being turned into soil organic matter, the farm is really demonstrating how to grow in a way that builds capital for the future, whilst producing great quality food and continuing to explore and push the boundaries.
Sheep grazing in the pastures at Oxton Organics
With thanks to Jayne Arnold for the photos and the interview. Written by Jonathan Smith.
Thousands have already used The Farm Carbon Calculator in Scotland to generate a carbon footprint of their farm. You may be required to receive a Carbon Audit under the Whole Farm Plan guidance and be aware that the first Audits are to be completed by by 15 May 2025 – get started for free.
We’ve brought as much of the guidance you need together in one place so that farmers, growers and crofters in Scotland feel confident to get started.
There are around 51,000 farms in Scotland, and agricultural land makes up almost 80% of the area. Not all farms will want, or need a carbon audit, but we want to ensure as many as possible can get one for free if they want, or from a consultant, using The Farm Carbon Calculator.
In Scotland the receipt of future payments from the Scottish Government are dependent partly on the requirement that farms generate what they call a Carbon Audit – or what we term your farm’s carbon footprint. You can use several tools to complete this task – provided they meet criteria set out in the guidance and are compliant with PAS2050:
The Farm Carbon Calculator
Agrecalc
Cool Farm Tool
Solagro (JRC) Carbon Calculator.
Useful to note, if you think you already have a carbon footprint it is likely that this will be accepted by the SGRPID. These might be delivered to you as part of a UK supply chain contract (via the dairy, someone you supply, or supermarket agreements), by the Farm Advisory Service, as part of the Farm Business Survey, or from the Soil Association Exchange. Ask them for a copy – it’s your farm data after all and you will need this in case of inspection later.
We think there are many good reasons why you might want to do a carbon footprint but lets look first at what the benefits are as set out in the Whole Farm Plan.
What is the Whole Farm Plan?
Carbon Audits are part of Whole Farm Plan (WFP) guidance. Most farmers in Scotland are by now familiar with the WFP. It is designed encourage a comprehensive view of your farm or croft which should allow you to assess current performance, identify growth opportunities, and align practices with Scotland’s climate and nature goals.
Looking towards 15 May 2028, farmers seeking to claim Basic Payment Scheme payments will be required to implement the following key activities and plans:
Animal Health and Welfare Plan – reviewed annually
Biodiversity Audit – reviewed every 5 years
Carbon Audit – reviewed every 5 years
Integrated Pest Management Plan – reviewed annually
Soil Sampling of Region 1 land – every sampled field reviewed once every 5 years.
By 15 May 2025 all farms and crofts would need to have completed 2 out of the 5 audits. For all farms, one of these must be a carbon audit. We are working to ensure your carbon audit is one of the easier tasks to complete. Check the eligibility criteria in the guidance carefully to ensure you only complete audits which are required for you, and bear in mind the guidance can change. Read more
At the time of this article in March 2025 we understand that the audits required for 2026 (presumed to be required by 15 May 2026) will be made known in summer 2025 and announced as part of the Agricultural Reform Programme route map to give you time to prepare. We will revise this information as we learn more.
What we know so far is that by 2028 at the latest, all businesses will need to have all plans and audits that are applicable to their business in place.
There is lots here to take in in the above, especially if you have not undertaken any of the above activities yet. We are here to help so make sure you ask us questions if you have any.
Useful links– Whole Farm Plan
Whole Farm Plan guidance can change, or be amended in the annexes and ‘guidance updates’. We recommend you also read and become familiar with the available guidance at the following links:
Annex L: Carbon Audits including seasonal land – more specific guidance about what areas to include in your audit. Follow this note as it may differ from information you read within our Calculator guidance elsewhere
We know navigating these requirements can be challenging, but that’s where our team steps in. The Farm Carbon Calculator is free for farmers and we’re here to provide dedicated support to farmers and crofters whilst you complete your report. You can therefore get started with the tool yourself – and take control of this part of the process.
The benefits of a carbon footprint
If you have read this far, it is likely that you already want to get to grips with a carbon footprint on your farm. However, we understand it can be frustrating to spend more time at the computer. Here are the benefits we have hear from farmers using our tool over the past 15 years –
You will start to benefit as soon as you begin working with our tool. The calculator is used for all sorts of reasons:
Boost your interest in carbon – people want to understand greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and how they might be reduced. Combining 10 hectares once for example produces emissions of: 0.52 tCO2e, and this kind of information is readily available to you whilst you work on your report
Gain a unique view of your farm – often a fresh look at any business is a valuable exercise but you can also potentially make even more informed decisions
Create a baseline now for the future – it is likely that the earlier you footprint, the better prepared you will be for any future changes to guidance or otherwise
Be part of a positive narrative – more and more people are getting involved, and you can too. We think agriculture is ahead of the curve here.
Improve your business resilience – you may pinpoint cost-saving opportunities through resource efficiency
Someone asked you to – for example Meeting Carbon Audit standards as we have set out above. The Calculator is designed to be a problem solver!
Funding and support available
You will receive great advice from the Farm Advisory Service on their website, via email advice@fas.scot or telephone 0300 323 0161 to support your journey.
But you may also want assistance with the carbon audit particularly if your farm is complex, you don’t have time, or you just want someone to take care of it for you.
There are a number of farm advisors we also support in Scotland who can help guide you through your footprint, or offer you recommendations based on your carbon audit. Check with us, or ask that your advisor uses The Farm Carbon Calculator and check their fees and the total cost to you. Email calculator@farmcarbontoolkit.org.uk to check.
If they are not sure about what tool might work best, put them in touch with us so we can offer them support. We have a range of plans available for farm consultants to use our software and give you great footprints at a low cost.
In order to receive funding for support it is usually a requirement that the advisors you contract should be Farm Business Advisory Service Scotland (FBAASS) accredited – so why not search the list available on the LANTRA website to find one near you: see list.
Receive funding for your Carbon Audit – Preparing for Sustainable Farming
We are pleased to see that funding is again available to help you under the Preparing for Sustainable Farming (PSF) programme as of February 2025. Previously it was understood that funding would be closed at this point to new applicants.
Funding in this programme is expected to close in February 2026 and you will be able to claim for footprints completed in the 2025 calendar year. If you can claim, don’t delay in doing so. Read more
Check carefully the eligibility criteria for this funding which we have simplified slightly here:
£500 is available to fund eligible Carbon Audits
A new carbon audit can be funded every 3 years – which sits within the 5 years required for the whole farm plan
If you have a carbon audit but it is not of the required standard, or your farm has changed materially you should be able to make a new claim
Carbon audits can be claimed for that were completed in the 2025 calendar year. With claims being made by February 2026
When you use the Farm Carbon Calculator – either yourself, or you have a consultant prepare your audit – this should be reviewed by an FBAASS advisor and they should give you recommendations to accompany your report that will help you reduce emissions.
If other funding becomes available you should not double claim.
Get started – checklist
Your Carbon Audit doesn’t have to be overwhelming use this checklist to help guide your decisions prior to getting started.
Get familiar with the Whole Farm Plan > read guidance
Check which audits are required, and by what dates > check up to date guidance. Carbon Audits are for all farms, but there may be others you would like to tackle first.
Check if you already have a valid Carbon Audit > if yes, you can stop here.
See if you can receive funding > check eligibility
Decide if you want to complete the Carbon Audit yourself, or pay for help > why not create an account and login to check. You may be able to receive funded and paid for assistance either way.
Complete the Carbon Audit
Complete your own Carbon Audit > the rest of this guide will help
you can still send this to an advisor for recommendations
Find an advisor who can help > Contact us or use LANTRA’s list.
check they use The Farm Carbon Calculator
check the cost to you.
Keep a copy of your Carbon Audit on file, or in our system. Should SGRPID inspect your audits you may need this to hand.
Ask, what next? Completing your Carbon Audit frees you up to look at other audits, but also may allow you to undertake funded soil analysis.
Soil Analysis is a requirement on Region 1 farmland, and should include carbon. These results can be inputted into your report to make your footprint even more accurate. Read the WFP guidance on Soil Analysis, the PSF guidance around funding, and our very own Monitoring Soil Carbon guide too.
General suggestions
Most guidance suggests you should use the same carbon footprinting tool over time for consistent tracking. We’d agree – though don’t forget you can replicate, or complete a previous year in any calculator. Talk to us if you need help with this
Whichever tool you use, keep a good record of changes made based on your report
At the very least, keep a copy of your report for your records, as it is your hard work, and your data. Your Farm Carbon Calculator dashboard is a great place to keep your reports secure over time
Once you have a carbon audit look for or ask an advisor for actionable recommendations. You might like to start on our Farm Carbon Toolkit – a great place for guidance and case studies!
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