Farm Carbon Toolkit release a new report for farmers and land owners which explains the Voluntary Carbon Market and additional climate-friendly farming income streams.
The voluntary carbon market (VCM) has grown in recent years, but many still find the route to accessing the markets unclear and shrouded in uncertainty. Recent research also suggests that conversations around the VCM are polarising and particularly hard for farmers to decode. The VCM is an actively developing market that requires weighing up the potential risks and benefits before participation to ensure reputational and financial risk to a farm business has been considered.
In the report we provide information on various carbon credit types, discuss the differences between carbon insetting and carbon offsetting schemes and provide an overview of how to assess the quality of schemes. We also list relevant schemes operating in the UK agricultural sector and make recommendations. Download the report to read more.
Contents
What is the voluntary carbon market?
Why get involved with the sector?
The Risks of VCM Participation
Projects operating in the UK agricultural sector
Responsible reporting of carbon reductions, removals and credits
Other public and private finance options.
Authors
Dr Grace Wardell, Dr James Pitman, Dr Lizzy Parker, Becky Willson, Samuel Smith, Tim Dart, Liz Bowles
We are grateful to the Centre for High Carbon Capture Cropping (CHCx3) for supporting Farm Carbon Toolkit to produce this report. CHCx3 is a multi-partner research project helping UK farmers to increase carbon capture and farm resilience through diversified cropping, enabling new income sources and supporting enhanced value chains for industries.
CHCx3 is funded by Defra under the Farming Futures R&D Fund: Climate Smart Farming (project 10042535). It forms part of Defra’s Farming Innovation Programme, delivered in partnership with Innovate UK. www.carboncapturecropping.com
We would also like to thank the following for feedback on the first draft and contributions to the final report
Dr Lydia Smith – Project Lead of the Centre for High Carbon Capture Cropping (CHCx3), NIAB
Megan MacGillivray – 3Keel
Julian Gould – Farm Manager atHendred Estate
Kitty Grubb – Previous roles at Regenified and Agreena
Dr Jonathan Scurlock – National Farmers Union of England and Wales (NFU)
Andrew Adler – Non-executive Director FCT, Veterinarian and Consultant
Andrew Rigg – Non-executive Director FCT and Arable Farmer.
For more information about carbon credits in farming check out our popular piece on getting paid for carbon.
The Voluntary Carbon Market has surged in recent years, offering UK farmers and landowners potential new income streams for adopting climate-friendly practices. However, for many, the path to accessing this market remains unclear.
Farm Carbon Toolkit have produced a report that aims to demystify the Voluntary Carbon Market (VCM), providing an overview of carbon credit types, scheme integrity, and the risks involved, helping you weigh the potential benefits against the challenges before participating. Some of the topics in the report are summarised below, for more detail read the full report.
The VCM is a decentralised platform where companies, individuals, and organizations can purchase carbon credits to offset their emissions. Each credit represents a reduction or capture of emissions equal to one metric tonne of CO2 equivalents (CO2e).
Since agriculture is currently excluded from the Compliance Carbon Market (CCM) in the UK (like the UK Emissions Trading Scheme), the VCM is the primary venue for activities that remove and store carbon in biomass and soils through sustainable agricultural activities or nature projects.
Types of Carbon Credits
To generate credits for most schemes, you’ll first need to accurately baseline your operations. Credits are generated based on the measurable change from that baseline. These credits typically fall into three categories:
Carbon removal projects tend to fetch higher payments per tonne of CO2e because they actively remove carbon. However, they demand a high level of monitoring and verification, often requiring direct soil measurements at five-year intervals to evidence the permanence of carbon stocks.
Process of setting up a VCM project
Offsetting vs. Insetting: Which Path is Right for You?
A scheme that generates carbon credits that are sold outside of your value chain is known as carbon offsetting. However, an alternative has emerged in recent years, whereby climate friendly farming is financed by actors within your value chain. This is known as carbon insetting and is not considered to be part of the VCM, however we discuss it within the report to provide a full picture of what initiatives are available to farmers and landowners. Therefore a key decision involves who buys your credits:
Carbon Offsetting: This involves generating carbon credits and selling them outside of your value chain to unrelated buyers (e.g., a telecoms provider). This is considered ‘Beyond Value Chain Mitigation’ (BVCM).
Carbon Insetting (or WVCM): This is where a farm’s supply chain (like a processor or retailer) finances carbon improvements on the farm. Although not technically part of the VCM, insetting projects are often thought to offer the most promising avenue for successful, transparent, and verifiable climate impacts. Some carbon insetting schemes will produce carbon credits, however most, particularly with your direct downstream supply chain, will not.
Insetting allows both the farmer (Scope 1) and the supply chain company (Scope 3) to reflect the reductions or removals in their GHG inventories. These projects are believed to strengthen supplier relationships and enhance credibility due to improved traceability. The set up of these schemes may not look like other carbon offsetting schemes and are likely to not produce credits but provide direct value, see section 1.4 in the report for more detail.
Navigating the Risks and Ensuring Integrity
Participation in offsetting schemes comes with crucial risks that farmers must assess:
Risk
Description
Price Volatility
Fluctuating carbon credit prices may not always cover the costs of significant management shifts.
Long-term Contracts
Commitments can range from 3 to 50 years, potentially restricting future land-use choices.
Carbon Reversals
Carbon gains can be lost through natural disasters, unpredictable weather, or mismanagement. Schemes often use a central buffer pool to insure against these losses.
Additionality
Projects must prove that reductions/removals would not have happened without the project, which can often exclude early adopters of sustainable practices.
Leakage
An emissions reduction in one area causes an increase elsewhere (e.g., repurposing grain land leads to grain being grown elsewhere).
Reputational Risk
Farmers face potential reputational damage if their credits are linked to corporate ‘greenwashing’.
To instill confidence and integrity in the VCM, farmers should look for schemes that adhere to the highest standards. The Integrity Council for the Voluntary Carbon Market (ICVCM) has developed the Core Carbon Principles to help buyers identify high-integrity credits. These principles ensure that credits create real, additional, and verifiable climate impact. The ICVCM publishes online what carbon standards and their methodologies align with the core carbon principles, however most are still undergoing review.
It is also vital to practice responsible reporting. If you sell a carbon credit, you can no longer claim that reduction or removal toward your own business’s net-zero targets, as this would constitute double counting.
UK Projects and Finance Alternatives
There are a number of schemes available in the UK agricultural sector for a diverse array of activities including; regenerative practices in arable farming, woodland creation, peatland restoration, feeding cows alternative natural feeds and directly measured increases in soil organic carbon (see Table 4 in the report for further details).
The established, government-backed standards like the Woodland Carbon Code (WCC) and the Peatland Carbon Code (PCC) provide clear methodologies for carbon removals and reductions associated with these land management activities. While there was investigation into a potential UK Farm Soil Carbon Code, we provide an update on why it is no longer under development, alongside other UK carbon codes such as the Hedgerow carbon code in Box 1.
Beyond the VCM, farmers can access other income streams for sustainable farming and environmental land stewardship:
Government Schemes: Examples include the Improved Sustainable Farming Incentive (SFI) in England (set to open early 2026), Scotland’s Agri-Environment Climate Scheme (AESC), the Sustainable farming scheme (SFS) in Wales and Northern Ireland’s Farming with Nature Transition Scheme (FwNT).
Biodiversity Net Gain (BNG): Developers pay land managers to create or enhance habitats to offset ecological impacts. An example of the type of finance available from a BNG project is provided in Box 3 in the report.
Key Takeaways for Farmers
Before entering the VCM, we advise the following recommendations:
Scrutinise Schemes: Employ a high level of scrutiny and look for schemes that follow the ICVCM’s Core Principles or Oxford Offsetting Principles.
Know Your Buyer: Ask who will purchase the credits to determine if it aligns with offsetting or insetting, and whether this aligns with your values.
Investigate Full Costs: Determine the complete costs of participation, including monitoring and verification services, as these can impact your net revenue.
Measure Now: Even if you are undecided about selling credits, there is no better time to start measuring the carbon in your soils.
Avoid Double Counting: If you sell a carbon credit, you can no longer claim that reduction or removal towards your own business’s net-zero targets.
Retain Credits: Consider retaining any generated credits to meet your own farm’s net-zero targets.
This work was funded by the Centre for High Carbon Capture Cropping (CHCx3). CHCx3 is a multi-partner research project helping UK farmers to increase carbon capture and farm resilience through diversified cropping, enabling new income sources and supporting enhanced value chains for industries.
CHCx3 is funded by Defra under the Farming Futures R&D Fund: Climate Smart Farming (project 10042535). It forms part of Defra’s Farming Innovation Programme, delivered in partnership with Innovate UK.
For more information about carbon credits and the Voluntary Carbon Markets in farming check out our popular piece on getting paid for carbon.
As I was harvesting apples this weekend in an orchard that’s 15 years old, I was marvelling at how apples, and more widely perennial crops, produce food for us with really minimal input.
A sackful of high quality Pinova apples
In this particular orchard, the management I do is mowing or strimming four times a year, pruning trees in winter, hedge cutting in winter…and that’s more or less it. This orchard is planted on Grade 4 land with soil that is light, shallow and with a slight Northerly aspect. It has produced 2/3 of a tonne of apples over 2/3 of an acre this year. Whilst it’s a good year for apples, this orchard consistently produces good amounts of fruit.
The spread of over 25 varieties means any particular variety that crops poorly one year doesn’t impact overall yields too much. Within this, all the varieties are selected for disease resistance (particularly to canker and scab), as well as taste, vigour and genetic diversity,
Much of the fruit will go for juicing, or cider, but much of it is very high quality eaters and cookers that can be stored for months. It is amazing what you can produce on a small area with very little input from humans.
A functioning ecosystem
Orchards are perhaps our best example of agroforestry at work. Existing for hundreds, maybe thousands of years they embody the intercrop between fruit, pasture, livestock and a wide range of biodiversity. Traditional orchards are some of the most biodiverse places in the farmed landscape. Even in more intensive orchards they can be managed for wildlife and carbon sequestration alongside fruit production.
Birdsfoot trefoil is one of the species thriving in this orchard, providing forage for bees
In this particular orchard, and other small orchards on my farm, the land supports lots of butterflies, bees, birds and a wide variety of flora. No chemicals are used and there are actually no fertility inputs. The only machinery used is a mower and a strimmer. There are actually no fossil fuel inputs to the entire system – the machines are electric and we even transport the apples using an electric vehicle! Is this actually the future?
An electric strimmer, one of the few tools used in the orchard
I appreciate this isn’t a fully commercial operation and that in a commercial orchard there needs to be a focus on yields, quality, storage, processing, etc. However in some ways it encapsulates the debate on extensive versus intensive. Extensive growing systems mean low inputs, high biodiversity and moderate production levels. There is a whole debate to be had too around the nutritional quality v quantity of crops.
In addition to low emissions from any machinery or inputs, perennial crops (encompassing many fruits and nuts) also sequester carbon in both the soil and trees. Furthermore, a lack of cultivation means soil organic matter isn’t being oxidised, furthering the potential for carbon sequestration in soils. This is not so far away from a natural ecosystem, which inherently are large carbon sinks.
Agroforestry systems
Traditional top fruit orchards, often with livestock grazing underneath, are timeless examples of a farming system that produces fruit for eating, drinking, and feeding to livestock, as well as seasonal grazing. What hasn’t been grown more widely across the UK are nut groves, such as cobnuts, walnuts and sweet chestnuts. These bring the opportunity to bring protein into our diets as well, but it also requires something of a cultural shift to have more edible nuts in our diets.
The argument I would make is that we can successfully move away from simply fields of grass into agroforestry systems with relative ease, and that livestock and trees are perfectly compatible given the right planning. There are new skills to learn, equipment to buy and markets to access, but these are achievable. In return it would bring a fundamental shift in our landscapes with more carbon being sequestered, shade being provided, diversification of farm produce, and habitat being created.
Cereals grown as alley crops between hazel at Wakelyns Agforestry in Suffolk
However there is also an opportunity to integrate vegetables, other fruits and even arable into agroforestry systems – as has been successfully done at places like Wakelyns Agroforestry in Suffolk. The common thread here is that trees have enormous benefits in agricultural systems and really require very little input from us relative to the benefits that they can bring in terms of diversity of crops, biodiversity, carbon sequestration, water storage and landscape benefits.
Because these systems don’t require much, if any, cultivation, require few inputs, they bring a sort of stability to the land in a way that annual crops don’t. More perennials are something that previous generations would have seen as normal, and their reduced presence in our landscape is a relatively recent thing. Here’s me hoping for the return of perennials in our farming systems which bring real benefits to us all, and for generations to come.
Actions that cut carbon emissions often reduce costs – fuels and artificial fertilisers being the obvious examples. But on the other side of the equation, improving soil health – for instance by reducing cultivations and building soil organic matter, also results in more carbon being sequestered in farm soils. When soil organic matter increases, so does crop health, biodiversity, water holding capacity, resilience to floods and droughts, and in some cases water management for the wider landscape. There are multiple benefits, with carbon reductions being perhaps a secondary benefit to a range of improved business resilience measures.
Here are nine reasons why farmers and growers should care—and why it’s central to building resilient, profitable and sustainable businesses.
1. Economic benefits
Reducing farm emissions is often good for the bank balance. High-carbon inputs like fuel and fertiliser usually carry a high cost; by cutting emissions, you can often cut costs too. Caring about carbon can also create new business opportunities, with sustainability incentives from governments and organisations becoming increasingly common.
2. Improve soil health
Practices that build soil carbon improve soil health. Soil carbon fuels beneficial microbes that supply crops with essential nutrients. Healthier soils support higher yields with the same (or fewer) inputs, making land more productive and profitable. Strong soil health also safeguards fertility for future generations.
3. Highlight inefficiencies on farm
Our free Farm Carbon Calculator is a powerful management tool, helping farmers and growers to undertake a ‘carbon audit’ and identify wasteful (and costly) activities. High-emission items usually have a high price tag; tackling inefficiencies improves both your finances and your farm’s carbon footprint.
4. Improve farm resilience
The climate crisis drives many of the challenges farmers face today. Carbon-smart practices can help farms adapt to:
Local climate impacts (droughts, floods, heatwaves and other extreme events)
Input price fluctuations
Policy changes
Shifting markets.
5. Producers as part of the solution
Agriculture produces much of the world’s methane and nitrous oxide, but it can also be a major part of the solution. Farmers and growers can reduce their own emissions and even absorb carbon from the atmosphere — supporting global climate action while ensuring the long-term sustainability of their farms.
6. Help your country meet climate commitments
The UK, for example, is legally committed to net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050. Landowners and businesses will increasingly need to show evidence of action. Starting carbon audits now can put you ahead of future regulations that require monitoring and reduction.
7. Support supply chain commitments
Food businesses are under pressure to decarbonise, and supply chains are favouring low-carbon products. Some merchants, co-ops and buyers may even offer incentives for farms that measure and cut emissions. Farmers and growers who can demonstrate progress may secure stronger market demand and opportunities.
8. Engage positively with the public
Carbon is measurable — a clear way to show change over time. This helps build a positive narrative and public trust in farming. With customers increasingly interested in the footprint of their food, farmers and growers have a chance to share how agriculture is working to reduce impacts.
9. Support biodiversity
Farms are uniquely placed to promote biodiversity and create habitats for wildlife. Diverse ecosystems bring practical benefits like healthier soils, natural pest and disease control, pollination and greater climate resilience. They also connect people with nature, support wellbeing and provide beauty to be shared.
How We Can Help
At Farm Carbon Toolkit, we’ve been working on this for over 15 years. We can provide independent, practical support to help you start—or continue—your carbon journey.
Our free Farm Carbon Calculator is designed specifically for farmers and growers, and we run events, share guidance and offer advice to support action on the ground.
Wherever you are on the journey, we’re here to help. The important thing is to get started.
By Hannah Jones, FCT Senior Soil and Carbon Advisor
What is composting?
Let’s take a step back and consider composting. A process that can convert ‘waste’ organic materials, which may contain weed seeds and pathogens, into a highly valued resource for farmers, growers and gardeners. There is no universal strategy to handle compost, but we know that compost is good. Any handling, movement or change in conditions of the compost pile will influence what microbes are present.
Composting techniques
The means of compost waste handling needs to be designed based on what you want to achieve in addition to the time and resources available. There are multiple books available which provide details on the multiple composting techniques available. However, very simplistically bacterial-dominated compost is achieved with frequent turning of pile which generates a lot of heat from bacterial activity. A blend of ‘green’ and ‘brown’ material provides the balance of relatively low carbon to nitrogen food sources for microbes. This form of composting produces usable compost within months.
However, if you wish to have a compost dominated by fungi, don’t turn it and use a higher amount of ‘brown’ fraction thus increasing the carbon to nitrogen ratio. Fungi can break down waste with less available nitrogen than bacteria, which is why wood-dominated waste left in a heap will break down even when there is no manure or higher nitrogen waste in it. The fungal hyphae need to stay intact and turning will destroy the mycelial network.
The Johnson-Su composting technique is a classic method for creating this type of compost. However, it should be noted that mycorrhizae fungi, which are the nutrient and water harvesting symbionts of a range of plant species, will only thrive when attached to a root. Composting will not increase mycorrhizae directly but non-disturbed soil, which is rich in organic matter, will favour them in the presence of a diverse range of plant species.
Dealing with weeds and pathogens
Some organic waste material may contain persistent weeds and pathogens. Composting can be carried out to create a bacterial furnace that can easily reach temperatures of 60℃ or more. Frequent turning stimulates bacterial activity, and the heat-releasing degradation process warms the compost and effectively kills weeds and pathogens.
When compost reaches 60C pathogens and weed seeds will be broken down
At Heligan Gardens in Cornwall, as part of the compost Innovative Farmers FieldLab with Farm Net Zero project, waste streams can now be managed where no docks, oxalis, bind weed or vegetable diseases survive the composting process. Weekly turning of the compost piles over multiple months generated the heat to deal with pests and diseases. Careful turning is needed to make sure all compost gets heated in the middle of the pile over the composing process. Beneficial microbes are then able to re-infest the cooling compost to create a stable product.
Compost bays at the Lost Garden of Heligan. Piles are turned weekly with new waste entering the stream on the right hand side.
Compost is commonly used as a soil conditioner, providing a water retentive mulch as well as a food source for soil microbes. The quality of lettuces was maintained for longer in the Heligan field lab trials during a period of drought.
Greenhouse gases from compost
Uncovered and turned compost can release considerable amounts of carbon dioxide and nitrous gases. Bokashi composting, a technique not dissimilar to making silage, which uses lactic acid bacteria as an inoculum, can conserve 99% of carbon compared to just 25% in standard composting. Furthermore, in the same experiment 93% of the nitrogen was retained compared to 38% of the control3. This compost is dominated by lactic acid bacteria as a consequence of the oxygen-free environment and so is a process for preserving nutrients rather than specifically aimed at multiplication of desirable organisms. Application of bokashi to the soil will supply the nutrients, but the influx of more non-harmful bacteria can stimulate the soil food web as the lactic-acid producing species are consumed.
Experts of soil microbes advise inoculating seed with your desirable microbes rather than the soil. Based on the 10 billion/gram estimate in one gram of soil, the seed surface is relatively free of competition for your inoculant. Therefore, your inoculum may be one of the first to colonise an emerging root and from then on multiply.
Use compost to condition your soil
Recent findings from the Compost FieldLab at Prideaux Gardens has found a significant reduction in bindweed infestation with a combination of compost, the use of a broadfork (to ease surface compaction) and cover crops. The control also contained cover crops but no soil conditioning. Charles Walters4 highlights bindweed thrives where soil structure is poor and organic matter breakdown retarded. Thus double digging is not as desirable as plentiful compost mulching to feed soil shifters such as the earthworm community.
Trial lay out at Prideaux with deep compost over broadforked soil to improve soil conditions. There was some mild surface compaction.
It is important to recognise that major shifts in soil biology are unlikely to take place purely from compost addition. It is now well established that soil microbiology is driven by living plant diversity. Management can also have positive or catastrophic effects on soil diversity particularly if multiple ‘stresses’ take place at the same time such as drought and salinisation1. However, the incorporation of composting into your overall soil management can have major benefits for soil nutrients, structure and carbon storage.
In summary, handle your waste organic material as a valuable resource. Determine what you want from it, but at the same time make sure you manage the compost to control weed seeds and pathogens. Your compost is unique to your farm, your soil and your waste.
FCT offers advice
FCT works with farmers and growers on a daily basis, helping them to farm better by looking after their soils, build resilience, manage carbon and increase productivity. For more on what we do, and how we could help you, please see our Services page. We look forward to working with you!
References
1 Rodríguez del Río, Á., Scheu, S. & Rillig, M.C. Soil microbial responses to multiple global change factors as assessed by metagenomics. Nat Commun16, 5058 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-60390-4
2 Torsvik, V. and Øvreås, L., 2002. Microbial diversity and function in soil: from genes to ecosystems. Current opinion in microbiology, 5(3), pp.240-245.
3 Chavez-Rico, V.S., Bodelier, P.L., van Eekert, M., Sechi, V., Veeken, A. and Buisman, C., 2022. Producing organic amendments: Physicochemical changes in biowaste used in anaerobic digestion, composting, and fermentation. Waste Management, 149, pp.177-185.
4 Walters, C (1991) Weeds control without poisons Publishers: Acres UK
For many, views of animals grazing under large trees invokes the image of a slower pace associated with older farming periods. Whilst few would dispute the beauty of this, modern agriculture has largely forgotten the utility of trees in farming systems, often seeing them purely as a refuge for wildlife and a nuisance to farming activities . But the work of Dr Lindsay Whistance, Senior Livestock Researcher at the Organic Researcher Centre, is seeking to provide farmers with evidence of how valuable trees are in both environmental and economic terms. Trees can support greater animal welfare and more resilient farm enterprises overall. In this case study, we look at some of Dr Whistance’s research, which examines some of the ways trees positively contribute to livestock farming systems.
Trees on Farms through the Ages
In the past, trees in both hedgerows and fields were much more integrated features of the British farming landscape. Farm trees, hedgerows and woodland were managed carefully to produce a variety of resources. These included raw materials for many household items and crafts, timber for buildings, fuel, as well as fodder and shelter for farm animals.
As the value of wood declined, alongside the adoption of more mechanised and larger scale agriculture, the use for trees on farms diminished. Consequently, many farmland hedgerows and trees were removed in the last century to increase efficiency and productivity. The decline of trees in the farming landscape meant many benefits were lost, some which were noted and others which are only becoming more apparent now.
The Benefits Triage
Trying to understand and put meaningful data behind what these benefits might be has been a key component of Dr Whistance’s research. She has helped identify several key areas, both directly and indirectly, where trees positively contribute to livestock welfare and has provided a strong case for their inclusion in farming systems.
1. Shelter – buffering the extremes
One of the key challenges farmers face now is the increasing extremes of climatic events. Extreme heat, cold, wind and rain are all challenges to livestock who cannot access places to take refuge. Animals maintain a ‘thermal comfort zone’ where bodily processes are regulated. When temperatures move beyond this zone, the animal begins to experience stress which leads to a greater susceptibility for illness or death.
In hot environments, where animals’ body temperature exceeds the higher critical temperature (HCT), animal food intake decreases in an attempt to reduce heat load. An example of this is in dairy cows, where heat stress leads to a negative energy balance, increases metabolic disorders, and decreases milk production. FCT’s Jemma Morgan explores this issue in her recent blog.
In cold temperatures, animals need to increase their food intake every 1°C that drops below the lower critical temperature (LTC). This puts pressure on food availability.
Dr Whistance provides evidence that trees can help solve these issues. In high temperatures trees canopies help break any solar radiation and capture and store more moisture, leading to a cooling effect. This provides valuable refuge to animals seeking an escape from the heat. In challenging cold conditions, trees help to capture and store warm air underneath their branches, which can sometimes be as much as 6°c warmer than surrounding temperature.
Sheltered refuge is especially valuable during lambing, as newborn lambs must stay warm and dry in their first few hours of life. Without adequate shelter, they risk hypothermia before they can take in vital colostrum, gain energy, and begin to regulate their own body temperature. There are benefits during cold periods too, where grasses grow earlier in the season due to the warm pockets of air. During dry periods, grasses remain green due to the moisture and shade which trees provide. Dr Whistance’s work has also highlighted the benefits of trees in mitigating wind and its influence on ambient temperature.
More farmers are recognising and starting to implement agroforestry to support profitable farming, such as at Longmoor Farm in Dorset.
2- Tree fodder
Trace elements (TE) and plant secondary metabolic (PSM) products form an important part of a herbivore’s diet which directly influence an animals health. Traditionally, tree fodder was a key component of farm animals diet and would provide both of these elements. As access to trees and shrubs has become more restricted in modern day agriculture, these mineral elements have had to be provided through bought in supplements instead.
In one of their studies, Dr Whistance and her team examined mineral content of tree species and found that trees such as willow can provide an important source of cobalt and zinc, particularly valuable for weaned lambs. We have a blog by FCT’s Anthony Ellis on his experiences.
In another of their studies, they also found that the mineral content of stored tree fodder became more available after its storage period, indicating its potential as a stable source of minerals.
As well as animals foraging for the minerals they require, they can self medicate using plants which contain the necessary PSMs. Self selecting behaviour has been studied in goats and sheep and has revealed that those with high worm burdens will seek out leaves with high amounts of tannins to reduce their internal parasites. Certain trees contain high levels of condensed tannins which make them valuable resources for livestock.
Herbal leys provide tannins and trace elements but trees have an advantage due to their larger and deeper root systems that allow them to access minerals deep into the soil. As perennial plants, they also have key relationships with mycorrhizal fungi which increases the variety of minerals and has the ability to use biochemistry to access nutrients that pasture plants cannot. For livestock such as chickens and pigs, alongside providing browse, trees in the field can help promote a wider range of food sources including insects, nuts and seeds and fungi, which all encourages natural foraging behaviour.
3. Expressing animal behaviour
The last point to examine from Dr Whistance’s work is the effect trees can have on farm animal behaviour. The ability for an animal to express its natural behaviour is a key but often overlooked component of farm animal welfare and promotion of healthy animals. Similar to climatic stress and nutrient deficiencies, environmental suppression of animal instinct may lead to abnormal behaviour which then contributes to more serious problems further down the line.
Dr Whistance’s work has found that fields with trees allow livestock to express behaviour such as play (including scratching and rubbing against tree trunks) and encourages the natural instinct to seek hiding places for seclusion. These behaviours support the animals when regulating their own physiological and emotional health. Cattle in silviopasture systems show increased social licking by up to 80%, which is almost double compared to solely pasture systems. This promotes greater social cohesion which results in animals that demonstrate less fear and aggression and consequently stress. On a physical level, animals enjoy and benefit from scratching and rubbing themselves against trees and shrubs as it helps to dislodge parasites and seeds and also removes dead skin and hair which can all contribute to complications. Giving the animal the opportunity to manage its own needs in a suitable way can remove the need for intervention from the farmer.
Conclusion
One of the key insights from Dr. Whistance’s work is the vital role that trees and hedgerows play in helping animals to self-regulate, whether through shelter, diet, or behaviour. Her research highlights the importance of managing and using the natural resources available on the farm to support animal well-being. When used wisely, these resources can offer multiple benefits, reducing the need to purchase external inputs and enhancing the overall sustainability of the farm. By enabling both livestock and the wider farm system to make use of natural features, farmers can strengthen the environmental and economic resilience of their operations – just as previous generations did.
It is important to note that tree systems must be carefully designed to suit the specific needs and conditions of each farm. There is no one-size-fits-all approach, and some adjustments may be necessary as the system grows within each farm.
Key Findings
Trees and hedgerows are valuable on-farm resources, especially for livestock farmers
They provide environmental benefits and are key to livestock’s physical and emotional health by facilitating access to shelter, nutrition and expression of natural behaviour.
Tree planting for livestock requires careful planning so the benefits are optimised and the cost/maintenance kept as low as possible
It is May, it is dry, and farmers are praying for rain. The conversations I’ve had with farmers and veterinarians this week have painted a clear picture: while political uncertainty may cloud the immediate horizon, one thing remains constant—the risk of climate change and its disruption to traditional agricultural systems. These discussions have reinforced a fundamental truth that many in agriculture are grappling with: the old ways of doing things may no longer be sufficient for the challenges ahead.
Cracked ground in May 2025
The Reality of Risk in Modern Agriculture
Farmers today face an unprecedented combination of challenges. Extreme weather events are no longer anomalies but regular occurrences that demand preparation. Prolonged dry periods followed by prolonged wet periods, heavy rain and unexpected late frosts, shifting pest patterns that render traditional management strategies obsolete—these are the new realities of agricultural production.
A warm and very dry spring was the reality for most of the UK in 2025. These plots detail how much rainfall and temperature deviate from the long-term averages between 1991 and 2020. Credit: UK Met Office
After 60 years of being encouraged to use chemical solutions to build yield, and measure efficiency as output per unit of land farmed, we have created a system that is reliant on external inputs where we have no control over price. Alongside that, we have transitioned from a predictable political subsidy system to one where objectives differ, and the expectation of delivering public goods means the subsidy systems now favour land ownership over food production.
Yet the challenge extends beyond the farm gate. Veterinarians are also witnessing cultural shifts that demand their own form of resilience. Changing consumer expectations around animal welfare, evolving regulatory frameworks, and new technologies are transforming veterinary practice. Like farmers, they must adapt to remain relevant and practical in serving their communities.
Understanding Assets and Aspirations
Building resilience requires a fundamental shift in how we think about agricultural assets. Traditional measures of farm value—land, equipment, and livestock—remain important, but they’re no longer sufficient indicators of long-term viability. Today’s resilient farms also invest in knowledge assets, relationship networks, and adaptive capacity.
This broader understanding of assets includes soil health as a foundation for productivity, water management systems that can handle both scarcity and excess, and diversified income streams that provide stability when primary enterprises face challenges. It also encompasses the human capital—the skills, knowledge, and relationships that enable farmers to navigate uncertainty and capitalise on opportunities.
Cattle grazing in silvopasture may become a more common sight as we value the shade trees provide and the additional carbon sequestration cows can bring
Aspirations matter equally. Farmers who view their operations as dynamic systems capable of evolution rather than static enterprises bound by tradition are better positioned to build resilience. This mindset shift—from preserving the status quo to embracing adaptive change—is crucial for long-term sustainability.
Strategies for Long-Term Thinking
Successful resilience building requires moving beyond reactive responses to proactive planning. This means developing systems that can withstand shocks while maintaining productivity and profitability. Several key strategies emerge from successful adaptation stories:
Diversification remains one of the most effective tools for resilience. Farmers who have integrated multiple enterprises—combining crops with livestock, adding value-added processing, or incorporating agritourism—have created buffer systems that cushion against financial challenges. This diversification extends to soils, where longer rotations with a greater variety of crops help build soil carbon and protect soil integrity. For livestock, the diversity of forage mix with different harvest dates will provide more flexibility in responding to weather events.
Soil health investment has proven particularly valuable. Farmers implementing regenerative practices report not only improved drought tolerance and reduced input costs but also enhanced carbon sequestration opportunities that may provide additional revenue streams. Cover cropping, reduced tillage, and integrated pest management create agricultural systems that work with natural processes rather than against them.
A herbal lay that has had no synthetic Nitrogen for four years, 21 days after being grazed (taken in September 2024)
Technology adoption, when carefully selected and implemented, enhances both productivity and adaptability. Precision agriculture tools help farmers optimise inputs and reduce waste, while weather monitoring systems provide early warnings that enable proactive responses to changing conditions. However, technology alone isn’t sufficient—it must be integrated with sound ecological principles and business planning alongside openness to learning new approaches to farming.
The Wake-Up Call We Need
The question that haunts many thoughtful observers of agriculture is what it will take for widespread recognition that complacency is no longer an option. Perhaps the answer lies not in waiting for a singular wake-up call but in recognising that the alarm has already sounded—repeatedly.
At Farm Carbon Toolkit, we work with farmers who aren’t waiting for permission to adapt, providing a whole range of services. They’re already implementing changes, investing in resilience, and building systems designed for uncertainty. They understand that protecting livelihoods and businesses requires accepting that the future will be different from the past.
This recognition is spreading through agricultural communities, driven by both necessity and opportunity. Younger farmers entering the industry often bring fresh perspectives on sustainability and adaptation. Established operators are discovering that resilience investments often improve profitability even under current conditions.
Moving Forward
The path forward requires acknowledging that resilience isn’t a destination but an ongoing process of adaptation and improvement. It demands long-term thinking in an industry which is driven by seasonal cycles. However, it understands the importance of legacy and the inheritance of future generations. Most importantly, it requires moving beyond the comfortable assumption that things will somehow work out without deliberate action.
Fundamentally, building resilience is about developing capacity—the ability to adapt, learn, and thrive in changing conditions. For agriculture to meet the challenges ahead, this capacity building must become as routine as any other farm management practice.
Spring barley crop, Norfolk, May 25 drying out and farmer has little grain expectation and even lower straw yield.
The choice is clear: we can continue to hope that traditional approaches will suffice, or we can embrace the reality that our agricultural future depends on our willingness to adapt today. The farmers leading this transformation aren’t waiting for others to catch up—they’re building the resilient systems that will define agriculture’s future.
At Farm Carbon Toolkit we are supporting those farmers to think and deliver the future.
In my role as a farm carbon and soils project assistant, I get out and about on farms a fair amount. Both at work and at home, this past month has seen me hide in the shade, reach for ice in my drinks and ‘require’ ice-cream…
Everywhere I have been, I have seen animals doing their best to find shade.
They do not have the luxury of opening doors and hiding inside, getting ice for their water, or enjoying the soothing cool of melting ice-cream on the tongue – for many, the best they can find is a hedge.
Don’t get me wrong, I’m a major fan of hedges (plant more, please) but when the sun is high in the sky, at its hottest, when the rest of us are re-applying sunscreen, or, if you’re in sunny Europe, taking a siesta, a hedge alone doesn’t actually provide much shade.
The future could be hot
With the Met Office predicting a 50:50 chance of the UK experiencing 40℃ again within the next 12 years (experienced in Lincolnshire in July 2022), for the sake of farmed animals everywhere, we must bring trees back into our farms.
Heat impacts on animals
A quick search on Google Scholar will pull up data showing that heat-stressed animals reduce their feed intake, gain less weight, produce less milk, experience reduced fertility and are more susceptible to ill health. Prolonged exposure to temperatures as low as 22℃ can induce these stresses in cattle.
I’m yet to meet a farmer who doesn’t love her/ his stock and wants to take the best care of them. Everyone wants to see good animal welfare. Increasingly, for the sake of the health and welfare of our animals (not to mention the myriad other benefits they can provide including carbon storage, alternative income streams, biodiversity gain, etc.), we need to get more trees into our farm systems.
Cows finding any available shade on a hot day
Some solutions
Allowing a tree to grow tall in an existing hedge, or planting trees in a hedge to ‘gap up’ is a simple start, but adding in-field trees to pastures brings even more benefits. For those farmers practising a form of paddock or mob grazing, it is very easy to end up with a grazing plot that only has one side hedged, offering no shelter at all.
There are a variety of options for introducing trees into pasture fields, and an increasing number of agroforestry advisors who can work with you to understand what will work for your farm system and the welfare of your animals. Despite the Sustainable Farming Incentive being paused, you can still produce an Agroforestry Plan for your holding for which you will be paid £1,268. This makes me optimistic that tree planting and management will be funded when the financial support options are opened again next year. It’s also worth knowing that you can plant up to 275 trees per 0.25 hectares without changing the classification of your land.
Cows grazing in woodland
Given that the best time to plant a tree was yesterday, now is a good time to hatch a plan for autumn/ winter planting. You don’t have to wait for the Government to fund this for you. Whilst larger plantings may need some capital assistance, a few trees and some simple protection may be cheaper than you think. Your future bottom line will thank you for it, as will the cows who give you the milk to make that ‘very necessary’ ice-cream…
“Had we still been ploughing now, we would’ve had two or three terrible seasons and lots of soil damage. The way I farm now has softened that blow. I wouldn’t want to be cultivating the land like we used to.”
Jayne Arnold is a grower who is really pushing the boundaries of soil health and management. Based on a 12-acre organic vegetable farm in Worcestershire, she is constantly striving to find ways to improve the diversity, depth, quality and carbon content of their soils. Growing for their own veg box scheme, the farm also has a few sheep, an orchard, agroforestry and makes plenty of compost.
In this new Case Study, we learn how Oxton Organics is balancing a productive farm, producing local food, whilst constantly improving soil health and quality through a voracious appetite for knowledge and an approach.
Whilst the farm has been organic for a long time, it’s only in the last 7-8 years that this new approach to soil management started, producing some really impressive results. The approach is underpinned by applying high quality compost, biostimulants, and covering the soil as much as possible through mulches, compost and green manures.
The sheep play an important role, and the pastures they’re on have improved significantly since the species mix and stocking regime has changed. This has resulted in not just better pastures and better soil helath, but much more biodiversity too, as Jayne notes:
“In the years after sowing the pasture, it was predominantly grasses, white clover, and yarrow, with a little ribwort, burnet and yellow trefoil. Now there is much more diversity, there are flowers throughout summer and autumn, including dandelions, wild carrot, yarrow, knapweed, oxeye daisy and much more. A few bee orchids and pyramidal orchid appeared four years ago and returned every year since. We had never seen orchids on the farm before! Butterflies and other pollinating insects are also more abundant.”
Biodiverse pastures at Oxton Organics
Wildlife abounds above and below ground, from the tall hedges and lines of willow coppice to the flowers of the pastures and the cropland soil teeming with life. “There are so many worms in the soil, it’s hard to avoid them when transplanting crops!” Jayne says.
Soil Organic Matter levels are rising and distributed more evenly through the soil profile. Structure is improving, soil colouration is more even and deeper through the profile. The action of worms and perennial plants helps to draw carbon down in the soil profile – and that means it is also more stable. Carbon sequestered into the soil like this is a proper drawdown of atmospheric carbon; if it’s not released then it is stable and locked away.
An example of a deep rooting and diverse green manure mix, in one of the polytunnels
Jayne notes that weather patterns have changed, with more frequent extreme rainfall events. “The up and downness of the weather has changed a lot“, she says. Building resilience in the stability of farm soils is essential in helping to mitigate such risks that all growers are experiencing from a changing climate. Soils that are higher in carbon, have a mulch or living cover, and have better structure will be much more resilient to the effects of both heavy rain and drought.
The farm’s focus on soil management underpins all the positive aspects outputs of the farm – quality food, flood resilience, carbon sequestration, biodiversity, and indeed sheer enjoyment and intrigue that gets growers out of bed in the morning. A refreshing look at green manures, founded on experience and observation, demonstrates one example of this: “you won’t build a fungal dominant soil with legumes. Plants will reject mycorrhizal associations if there’s too much Nitrogen in the system. You need to build bacteria that naturally fix Nitrogen and be more balanced. You don’t see many legumes in the hedgerow – yet that’s all green” says Jayne.
Mycorrhizal fungi associating with a radish
Managing carbon is also part of the business strategy, using an electric van for deliveries, minimising any cultivations, ensuring lots of carbon sequestration, and reducing inputs. With so much carbon being absorbed on the farm and being turned into soil organic matter, the farm is really demonstrating how to grow in a way that builds capital for the future, whilst producing great quality food and continuing to explore and push the boundaries.
Sheep grazing in the pastures at Oxton Organics
With thanks to Jayne Arnold for the photos and the interview. Written by Jonathan Smith.
Thousands have already used The Farm Carbon Calculator in Scotland to generate a carbon footprint of their farm. You may be required to receive a Carbon Audit under the Whole Farm Plan guidance and be aware that the first Audits are to be completed by by 15 May 2025 – get started for free.
We’ve brought as much of the guidance you need together in one place so that farmers, growers and crofters in Scotland feel confident to get started.
There are around 51,000 farms in Scotland, and agricultural land makes up almost 80% of the area. Not all farms will want, or need a carbon audit, but we want to ensure as many as possible can get one for free if they want, or from a consultant, using The Farm Carbon Calculator.
In Scotland the receipt of future payments from the Scottish Government are dependent partly on the requirement that farms generate what they call a Carbon Audit – or what we term your farm’s carbon footprint. You can use several tools to complete this task – provided they meet criteria set out in the guidance and are compliant with PAS2050:
The Farm Carbon Calculator
Agrecalc
Cool Farm Tool
Solagro (JRC) Carbon Calculator.
Useful to note, if you think you already have a carbon footprint it is likely that this will be accepted by the SGRPID. These might be delivered to you as part of a UK supply chain contract (via the dairy, someone you supply, or supermarket agreements), by the Farm Advisory Service, as part of the Farm Business Survey, or from the Soil Association Exchange. Ask them for a copy – it’s your farm data after all and you will need this in case of inspection later.
We think there are many good reasons why you might want to do a carbon footprint but lets look first at what the benefits are as set out in the Whole Farm Plan.
What is the Whole Farm Plan?
Carbon Audits are part of Whole Farm Plan (WFP) guidance. Most farmers in Scotland are by now familiar with the WFP. It is designed encourage a comprehensive view of your farm or croft which should allow you to assess current performance, identify growth opportunities, and align practices with Scotland’s climate and nature goals.
Looking towards 15 May 2028, farmers seeking to claim Basic Payment Scheme payments will be required to implement the following key activities and plans:
Animal Health and Welfare Plan – reviewed annually
Biodiversity Audit – reviewed every 5 years
Carbon Audit – reviewed every 5 years
Integrated Pest Management Plan – reviewed annually
Soil Sampling of Region 1 land – every sampled field reviewed once every 5 years.
By 15 May 2025 all farms and crofts would need to have completed 2 out of the 5 audits. For all farms, one of these must be a carbon audit. We are working to ensure your carbon audit is one of the easier tasks to complete. Check the eligibility criteria in the guidance carefully to ensure you only complete audits which are required for you, and bear in mind the guidance can change. Read more
At the time of this article in March 2025 we understand that the audits required for 2026 (presumed to be required by 15 May 2026) will be made known in summer 2025 and announced as part of the Agricultural Reform Programme route map to give you time to prepare. We will revise this information as we learn more.
What we know so far is that by 2028 at the latest, all businesses will need to have all plans and audits that are applicable to their business in place.
There is lots here to take in in the above, especially if you have not undertaken any of the above activities yet. We are here to help so make sure you ask us questions if you have any.
Useful links– Whole Farm Plan
Whole Farm Plan guidance can change, or be amended in the annexes and ‘guidance updates’. We recommend you also read and become familiar with the available guidance at the following links:
Annex L: Carbon Audits including seasonal land – more specific guidance about what areas to include in your audit. Follow this note as it may differ from information you read within our Calculator guidance elsewhere
We know navigating these requirements can be challenging, but that’s where our team steps in. The Farm Carbon Calculator is free for farmers and we’re here to provide dedicated support to farmers and crofters whilst you complete your report. You can therefore get started with the tool yourself – and take control of this part of the process.
The benefits of a carbon footprint
If you have read this far, it is likely that you already want to get to grips with a carbon footprint on your farm. However, we understand it can be frustrating to spend more time at the computer. Here are the benefits we have hear from farmers using our tool over the past 15 years –
You will start to benefit as soon as you begin working with our tool. The calculator is used for all sorts of reasons:
Boost your interest in carbon – people want to understand greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and how they might be reduced. Combining 10 hectares once for example produces emissions of: 0.52 tCO2e, and this kind of information is readily available to you whilst you work on your report
Gain a unique view of your farm – often a fresh look at any business is a valuable exercise but you can also potentially make even more informed decisions
Create a baseline now for the future – it is likely that the earlier you footprint, the better prepared you will be for any future changes to guidance or otherwise
Be part of a positive narrative – more and more people are getting involved, and you can too. We think agriculture is ahead of the curve here.
Improve your business resilience – you may pinpoint cost-saving opportunities through resource efficiency
Someone asked you to – for example Meeting Carbon Audit standards as we have set out above. The Calculator is designed to be a problem solver!
Funding and support available
You will receive great advice from the Farm Advisory Service on their website, via email advice@fas.scot or telephone 0300 323 0161 to support your journey.
But you may also want assistance with the carbon audit particularly if your farm is complex, you don’t have time, or you just want someone to take care of it for you.
There are a number of farm advisors we also support in Scotland who can help guide you through your footprint, or offer you recommendations based on your carbon audit. Check with us, or ask that your advisor uses The Farm Carbon Calculator and check their fees and the total cost to you. Email calculator@farmcarbontoolkit.org.uk to check.
If they are not sure about what tool might work best, put them in touch with us so we can offer them support. We have a range of plans available for farm consultants to use our software and give you great footprints at a low cost.
In order to receive funding for support it is usually a requirement that the advisors you contract should be Farm Business Advisory Service Scotland (FBAASS) accredited – so why not search the list available on the LANTRA website to find one near you: see list.
Receive funding for your Carbon Audit – Preparing for Sustainable Farming
We are pleased to see that funding is again available to help you under the Preparing for Sustainable Farming (PSF) programme as of February 2025. Previously it was understood that funding would be closed at this point to new applicants.
Funding in this programme is expected to close in February 2026 and you will be able to claim for footprints completed in the 2025 calendar year. If you can claim, don’t delay in doing so. Read more
Check carefully the eligibility criteria for this funding which we have simplified slightly here:
£500 is available to fund eligible Carbon Audits
A new carbon audit can be funded every 3 years – which sits within the 5 years required for the whole farm plan
If you have a carbon audit but it is not of the required standard, or your farm has changed materially you should be able to make a new claim
Carbon audits can be claimed for that were completed in the 2025 calendar year. With claims being made by February 2026
When you use the Farm Carbon Calculator – either yourself, or you have a consultant prepare your audit – this should be reviewed by an FBAASS advisor and they should give you recommendations to accompany your report that will help you reduce emissions.
If other funding becomes available you should not double claim.
Get started – checklist
Your Carbon Audit doesn’t have to be overwhelming use this checklist to help guide your decisions prior to getting started.
Get familiar with the Whole Farm Plan > read guidance
Check which audits are required, and by what dates > check up to date guidance. Carbon Audits are for all farms, but there may be others you would like to tackle first.
Check if you already have a valid Carbon Audit > if yes, you can stop here.
See if you can receive funding > check eligibility
Decide if you want to complete the Carbon Audit yourself, or pay for help > why not create an account and login to check. You may be able to receive funded and paid for assistance either way.
Complete the Carbon Audit
Complete your own Carbon Audit > the rest of this guide will help
you can still send this to an advisor for recommendations
Find an advisor who can help > Contact us or use LANTRA’s list.
check they use The Farm Carbon Calculator
check the cost to you.
Keep a copy of your Carbon Audit on file, or in our system. Should SGRPID inspect your audits you may need this to hand.
Ask, what next? Completing your Carbon Audit frees you up to look at other audits, but also may allow you to undertake funded soil analysis.
Soil Analysis is a requirement on Region 1 farmland, and should include carbon. These results can be inputted into your report to make your footprint even more accurate. Read the WFP guidance on Soil Analysis, the PSF guidance around funding, and our very own Monitoring Soil Carbon guide too.
General suggestions
Most guidance suggests you should use the same carbon footprinting tool over time for consistent tracking. We’d agree – though don’t forget you can replicate, or complete a previous year in any calculator. Talk to us if you need help with this
Whichever tool you use, keep a good record of changes made based on your report
At the very least, keep a copy of your report for your records, as it is your hard work, and your data. Your Farm Carbon Calculator dashboard is a great place to keep your reports secure over time
Once you have a carbon audit look for or ask an advisor for actionable recommendations. You might like to start on our Farm Carbon Toolkit – a great place for guidance and case studies!
Any questions? We’re here to help, contact Michael Brown, Customer Service Officer
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